V  Captive Management

Chapter Summary

• Only one group of tamarins should be housed in an exhibit. If there a re more than one group of tamarins in your facility they should be visually isolated from one another.
• Cotton-top tamarins in naturalistic, mixed species exhibits provide an exciting education experience for the visitors.
• Cotton-top tamarins should be maintained at 25-29° C (76-85° F) with 50-70% humidity and on a 12L:12D light cycle.
• Providing enriched environments where animals can acquire and retain the behavioral skills they would need to survive in the wild should be strongly encouraged.
• A list of live plants for use in cotton-top tamarin exhibits and toxic plants to avoid using is provided.

 

Housing in Captivity

Cotton-top tamarins have been housed in research institutions and zoos for several decades. Considerable information is currently available on techniques for maintaining cotton-top tamarins in captivity that considers not only the physical but psychological well-being of this endangered species.

Caging In research institutions, cotton-top tamarins have been housed in cages that range in size from 0.2 m'- 12m' (Evans, 1983; Gengozian et al., 1978; Hampton et al., 1978; Kilborn et al., 1983; Kirkwood et al., 1983; Ogden et al., 1978; Snowdon et al., 1985; Tardif et al., 1984a;b). Variability in reproduction and infant survival has been seen in most research colonies. The most successful colonies have large complex cages and animals that have been properly socialized (see Snowdon et al., 1985 for a complete review).

In zoos, cotton-top tamarins have been housed in cages that range in size. The smallest recommended cage for a family group of tamarins is at least 3L x 2W x 2.5Hm. It should be noted however, the larger the cage or exhibit, the greater probability of housing large families with minimal disruption in the group.

Only one pair/family should be housed in a cage/exhibit. If more than one group of tamarins is present in your facility, it is critical that they are visually isolated from one another. If pairs/families can see their neighbors, territorial behavior (vocalizing, piloerection, displaced aggression) will follow. Since the groups cannot resolve the encounter appropriately, it is very common to see displaced aggression in the group. One animal, usually the adult male, will begin to chase or attack another conspecific in his group, while repeatedly directing his attention to the neighboring group. Placing opaque barriers (heavy curtains, kalite, etc.) between groups is sufficient to inhibit this behavior. However, it is critical that the barriers are monitored to ensure that the tamarins cannot see one another. Olfactory and auditory contact with neighboring groups does not cause significant disruption in the behavior or reproduction of cotton-top tamarins in captivity.

Construction Materials Cages should be constructed on non-toxic materials and either glass or wire fronted. Naturalistic exhibits have tremendous educational benefit for maintaining and displaying natural behavior to the public.

Substrate The use of soil, wood shavings, or other natural absorbent materials such as bark or mulch that can be removed for appropriate hygiene is most appropriate. A solid substrate is not recommended since infants and young animals may be injured in a fall. Animals should not be encouraged to forage on the floor of the exhibit since they will likely be exposed to more pathogens. Encouraging foraging on the exhibit floor is not recommended since wild tamarins are rarely, if ever, observed foraging on the forest floor.

Cage Furnishings Cages should be filled with a high density of natural branches and vines or ropes. The branches and vines/ropes provide a surface on which the claws can get a good grip and should be arranged to give the animals a variety of textures, diameters and degrees of firmness. Some branches may be quite solid and do not move when an animal lands, other branches may move. Branches should be placed at least one meter or more above ground level to simulate an arboreal environment. Branches, nest boxes, etc. should be cleaned occasionally to allow retention of odors and scent marks in the cage. However, changing the structure of the environment by adding new branches or rearranging old branches is suggested every 4-6 months to force animals to plan new travel routes.

Plants Developing a naturalistic exhibit for the tamarins is encouraged whenever possible. Exhibits filled with lush plantings are beneficial for the visitors and also the tamarins. However, please be aware that some plants are toxic to primates. Table I lists plants that have toxic properties and should be avoided. (For additional information on toxic plants see AZH & AAZV 1992 Toxic Plant Survey; Fowler, 1981).

Nest boxes Each cage should have a minimum of one nest box measuring at least 30 x 30 x 30 cm with a 10 x 15 cm hole cut in the middle of the box. The hole is large enough to accommodate an adult animal carrying an infant on its back to enter with ease. In addition, a hinged top is suggested to facilitate ease of cleaning the nest box.   Wooden nest boxes with simple sliding doors may allow for easy capture when the animals have gone to sleep for the night. Place the nest box at least 1.5 m from the ground. There should be several branches leading to and from the nest box.

Feeding and Watering Stations At least one, but preferably two feeding stations are recommended, especially for large groups of tamarins. Feeding stations should be placed at least 1.5 m from the ground. Tamarins should be fed at least twice a day (see nutrition section for more details.) Avoid placing branches directly above feeding and watering stations to avoid contamination by feces and urine. Food and water dishes/bottles should be sanitized daily to prevent a bacterial buildup.

Water should be provided ad lib. Tamarins can easily adapt to drinking out of a water bottle. There are several benefits to using water bottles such as ease of administration of medication, less contamination of the water, and monitoring water intake of pregnant females. Pregnant females are known to consume large quantities of water when pregnant. Although pregnancy may be difficult to detect in some females, an increase in group water consumption in most family cages will usually indicate pregnancy.

Lighting and Photoperiod The light cycle should be maintained at 12L: 12D throughout the year since there is little daily variation in the light cycle in the equatorial region of Colombia. For those animals that do not receive Vitamin D3 in their diet, between 30-60 minutes daily of ultraviolet light is recommended. UV lights should be placed 1-2 m above favored resting places, but not accessible to direct physical contact. Longer exposure to UV lights may be harmful. However, access to direct sunlight is the preferred method of obtaining Vitamin D3-

Temperature The temperature should be between 25-29'C (76-85'F) with between 5070% humidity (Kilborn et al., 1983; Letcher et al., 1992; Scullion et al., 1987).

Outdoor Exhibits Cotton-top tamarins tend to thrive in outdoor exhibits as long as the temperature remains within the suggested range. Supplemental heating can be provided near the nest box on cooler days. However, the tamarins should not remain outdoors without access to a ready heat source (i.e., indoor heated enclosure) for extended periods if the temperature falls below the recommended range.

Free-ranging cotton-top tamarin exhibits have been quite popular and

successful in zoos (see Price, 1992 and Savage, In press) A group of tamarins has been released at the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust and at the Roger Williams Park Zoo. Although this is a very popular exhibit for the zoo visitors, and undoubtedly an enriching experience for the animals, it requires a significant amount of staff time and should only be considered if there are individuals that can dedicate themselves full-time to this project. For additional information on the support material and release program of the Roger Williams Park Zoo contact Anne Savage.

Mixed Species Exhibits Cotton-top tamarins can be housed in mixed species exhibits with some bird species, reptiles or amphibians and/or mammals. Mixed species are encouraged as a way to display animals as you would find them in the wild and to conserve exhibit space. Cotton-top tamarins have been successfully housed with sloths, prehensile tailed porcupines, iguanas, tortoises, and agoutis. However, it should be noted that cotton-top tamarins have been known to catch small birds in or near their exhibit.

Because of the potential transmission of Herpesvirus by squirrel monkeys (Samiri), cotton-top tamarins should be housed at different sites and handled by different keepers. For additional information see the Veterinary Care chapter of this manual.

Environmental Enrichment Concern for the psychological well-being of captive cotton-top tamarins is an important component in any animal management plan. In the wild, cotton-top tamarins live in very complex environments requiring animals to locomote through complex forest environments, learn how to acquire and process food, and avoid predators. Simulating similar situations in captivity is of utmost importance (Snowdon & Savage, 1989). The ideal captive environment is one where animals could acquire and retain the behavioral skills they would need to cope successfully with their natural environment were they ever to be released to the wild. Foraging devices are probably the most effective means of enriching the lives of captive tamarins. Wild tamarins spend more the 60% of their day foraging for food (A.Savage, pers. comm.).

Designing foraging devices that mimic the natural foraging habitats of wild tamarins is most desirable. Feeders with small holes that allow crickets or mealworms to escape at unpredictable times are an inexpensive, yet enriching option for these small primates. The materials necessary for a feeder are a small piece of hollowed tree (e.g. Oak) about 4 inches in diameter, 1/2 inch dowel rod that is 8 inches long, PVC tube with twist cap and approximately 18 inches of thin rope. The hollow of the tree should be me made large enough to accommodate the PVC tube. Do not hollow out the tree so that it is open ended on both sides, leave one side closed. When the PVC tube is secured within the log, drill two 1/2 inch holes through the diameter of the cylinder. These holes should be made a few inches from the closed end and the dowel should be inserted so that equal amounts of it extend on either side. Additional small holes should be drilled through both the log and the PVC tube. Drill a small hole through the twist cap of the PVC tube in which the thin rope will be drawn through. Put crickets into the hollow space and secure twist top. Suspend the feeder from the roof of the enclosure to simulate swinging tree branches.

Hanging baskets filled with shavings and small pieces of food or insects provide tamarins with the opportunity to forage for much longer periods than if food was presented in a food dish. Presenting whole food items (apple, orange, banana) attached to a stand/stick will allow the animals to manipulate the large items into manageable sizes for consumption.

It should be noted that all foraging devices or opportunities should be at least 1.5 m from the ground. The tamarins should never be encouraged to forage on the floor of the exhibit, since it is likely that they would quickly become prey items in the wild. Moreover, gum feeding devices are designed for marmosets that have the appropriate dentition to gouge holes. Cotton-top tamarins do not have the proper dentition to gouge holes and in the wild tend to feed on sap opportunistically. They will feed on sap from a tree tapped by another species.

There are many interesting articles on appropriate primate enrichment techniques. The Shape of Enrichment, Laboratory Primate Newsletter, and Zoo Biology frequently publish articles on enrichment opportunities for primates. For additional information or a bibliographic listing of primate enrichment options contact the Primate Information Center, Regional Primate Research Center, SJ-50, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 or the Wisconsin Regional Primate Research Center Library, 1223 Capitol Ct., Madison, WI 53715-1299.

Pest Control Pest (rodents, cockroaches, feral domestic animals, etc.) should be adequately controlled or eliminated since they are potentially a major cause of mortality through predation or disease transmission.

Identification of Individuals Permanent identification of animals is strongly recommended. Whenever possible, please use the recommended transponder chip (Trovan, Infopet Identification System, Burnsville, MN). Tattooing with the INTERNATIONAL STUDBOOK number is also appropriate. Animals should be tattooed on the inner thigh. Hair dye can be used as a temporary means of identifying animals when needed.

Sexing Individuals Sexing adult animals is a simple procedure. The male's scrotum and penis and the female's large clitoris are easily distinguishable in adult animals. Correctly sexing prepubescent animals can be confusing. When examining the genitals of an animal, a female can be identified by examining the slit in the genital area. If there is only a small slit at the tip, it is a male, if the slit runs nearly the length of the ventral surface it is a female. Patterns of urination may also assist in correctly sexing individuals. Young males tend to urinate a stream that may be slightly arced, while females urinate in small, but frequent drops.

Capture Methods The easiest and least stressful method of capturing cotton-top tamarins is to lock them in their nest box at night or early in the morning before daylight. However, if a particular individual needs to be captured, the following methods can be employed. If the exhibit is not densely furnished with branches and vegetation, most animals can be easily netted. Using a fine mesh net (0.5 cm or less) is recommended to prevent the tamarin’s claws from becoming entangled in the net.

However, in lush exhibits, using a net is problematic since it tends to get caught

on the branches in the cage. The animals also become very stressed as they are chased through the exhibit. A second method has been developed to alleviate some of the common stress associated with capture. A keeper can enter the cage wearing thick leather/suede gloves (welding gloves purchased from local hardware stores are appropriate). Tamarins not habituated to this method of capture, will approach the keeper. Using the element of surprise, the keeper can then quickly grab the tail of the animal with one hand and use the other hand to grab the animal's body. Quickly release the tail, and use both hands to secure the tamarin. Never attempt to hold the animal by the tail because it is quite probable that you may injure the animal as well as receive numerous bites from a very agile, angry tamarin! Also, make sure you are gently holding the animal with both hands and supporting its body at all times.

Shipping Procedures

Animal shipment guidelines have been established by CIT'ES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species), IATA (International Air Transport Association), USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) and USFWS (United States Fish and Wildlife Service).

General guidelines for shipping cotton-top tamarins are similar to those for golden lion tamarins (Golden Lion Tamarin Management Committee, 1990)

Container Specifications Use a plastic airline approved shipping kennel (Skykennel) or a non-toxic treated wooden crate. The size of the crate should be at least 50 cm wide by one meter in length. Use screws, but make sure they do not protrude to the inside of the box. Do not use nails.

All shipping containers need good ventilation. Make several 0.5 cm holes on both sides and front of box. A second option requires 1/3 of the front and sides to be covered with 2 layers of 0.5 cm fine mesh, which will allow for good ventilation and prevent the tamarins from probing their hands through the holes of the mesh. The wire mesh should be covered with burlap to give the animals' privacy.

Attach handles on the side to carry the crate. The advantage to having the handles on the side is it provides extra space for ventilation in case two crates are placed close to one another. A device to create space for ventilation is mandatory when shipping animals.

All skykennels have swinging doors made of mesh. Make sure to cover the door with fine mesh (0.5 cm) and burlap. When designing doors for wooden crates, it is best to use a sliding door.

A second slatted, wood floor should be fastened to the original floor. Allow 0.5 cm between the slats for urine and feces to drop through to the floor below. This spacing decreased the chance of an animal getting its hand or foot caught. Please note that the IATA regulations specifically require a removable dropping tray. Cover the floor with absorbent material such as wood shavings. Attach a dowel 1 cm in diameter to the sides of the crate for perching.

The shipping container must be labeled on the sides and top as to which side is up (use arrows to indicate direction), note the content of the crate (i.e., number of animals, species), and consignor and consignee addresses and phone numbers.

Shipping Animals If more than one animal needs to be shipped, the following is recommended. Two animals can be sent in the same container or compartment if they are familiar with one another and have been paired or in a family prior to shipment. A pair with young infants or juvenile offspring less than 8 months of age should be shipped in the same compartment. If you are shipping a large family, a single large crate should be divided into several compartments. The interior walls between compartments should allow cross-ventilation and auditory/olfactory contact. Allowing all members of a large family to share a single compartment of crate, even a large one, can result in overheating or death. Shipping pregnant females is always a risk since it is quite likely that she will abort early in her pregnancy.

Shipment Timing and Regulations Deciding when to ship animals is a critical factor. Remember mail takes precedence over animals and animals can be left sitting in a cargo area during busy, holiday seasons. When possible, schedule departure and arrival for Tuesday through Thursday (to avoid weekends) and during normal business hours to ensure that the cargo office is open for pickup.

It is best to ship animals during the spring or fall to avoid extreme

temperatures. Tamarins are easily chilled or overheated. If sky kennels are used, ventilation is rarely a problem, however, it is often difficult to keep the animals warm. Providing a nest box for animals shipped in cooler weather can assist animals in coping with temperature stress. Please note that a certain amount of container modification may be required to meet the prevailing environmental conditions. The USDA Animal Welfare regulations for birds and mammals prohibit shipment of animals if the temperature is below 7.2'C (45'F) for more than 45 minutes during handling (i.e., being transported) unless accompanied by a certificate of acclimation to lower temperatures. Shipments of animals are also prohibited when the temperature exceeds 29.5'C (85'F) in any animal holding facility at the terminal or over 23.9'C (75'F) for more than 4 hours at the terminal, or over 29.5'C (85'F) for more than 45 minutes during handling.

A representative from the zoo should stay with the tamarins until they are loaded to be sure they are kept in as quiet an area as possible, are not disturbed by curious airport personnel, are not left in drafts or direct sun, are not placed under or between other freight, and are actually loaded on the correct flight. The animals do not need to be fed for a short flight, if they were fed prior to being crated. If the trip exceeds five hours, some food should be provided (fresh fruit, marmoset diet). Specimen reports, medical records, and health certificates for each individual should accompany every shipment, in addition to necessary permits that may be required by each state. All cotton-top tamarins are shipped for noncommercial purposes and are to be used for education and exhibition purposes only.

Upon arrival, animals should be released from the shipping crate and reunited with family members if appropriate. Animals should be given a nest box, food and water immediately upon release from the crate.

Table 1. List of toxic plants (R. McManamon, pers. comm.and Fowler, 198 1)

 Deciduous trees that should not be planted in zoos or aviaries

 Deciduous trees that should be planted with caution in zoos and avaries*

 *Trees in this group have been reported as poisonous to one or more species of animal.

Perhaps one growth stage (foilage, fruits, seeds) of the tree is poisonous.

Deciduous trees that may be used in zoos and avaries

Narrowleafed evergreen trees or shrubs that should not be planted in zoos or aviaries.

 Narrowleafed evergreen trees and shrubs that may be used in zoos and aviaries.

Broadleafed evergreen trees and shrubs that should never be planted in zoos or aviaries.

 Broadleafed evergreen trees or shrubs that should be planted with caution in zoos and aviaries.

Broadleafed evergreen tree or shrubs that can be planted in zoo and aviaries.

 Vines that should not be planted near animal enclosures.